The Cognitive Aging Principle in Multimedia Learning
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CHAPTER 22 The Cognitive Aging Principle In Multimedia Learning
Fred Pass
Open University of the Netherlands
Pascal W. M. Van Gerven Maastricht University Hub K. Tabbers Tilburg University
Contents |
Abstract
It is acknowledged that there are certain cognitive changes as we age. These changes make it necessary for specific considerations to be given to the way we present instructions. The theory of Cognitive aging principle postulates the possibility of expanding the limitations of working memory by using more than one sensory modality and instructions that use dual mode presentation.
The Cognitive Aging Principle In a learning environment we are constantly faced with relevant and irrelevant information and for understanding to occur we have to engage in high levels of processing where we differentiate the relevant from the irrelevant and combine the information between hearing and seeing. This makes the task of multimedia a difficult one for all ages but especially as we age and go through cognitive changes across our life span. These difficulties have partly come to surface because of longetivity and having to work longer in a world that bombards the elderly with technologically advanced multimedia applications. A multimedia instruction using sensory and auditory sources can only help learning if the information is relevant and coordinated with an established relationship between them which would have otherwise been unavailable using one source. If the source is irrelevant however, it creates an interference in the sensory modalities.
This article is asking how well the elderly learner integrate the processing of presentations in various modalities.
The Structure of this chapter is presented as follows:-
They discuss the main findings of Cognitive aging – because for any multimedia instruction to be effective there has to be an understanding of cognitive changes in the elderly and their specific needs.
The Cognitive aging principle - the research and its implications are discussed.
The theories of dual coding (Pavios 1986), Cognitive load theory (Sweller 1999) and Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer’s 201) - are discussed as a strong base for the design of multimedia based learning.
They also come up with some guidelines.
Cognitive aging
Research based studies have shown that the aging brain shows a decline in neural (related to the nervous system) and metabolic efficiency (biochemical activity) which consequently effects the capacity of the brain to perform high levels of cognitive processing. These declines are explained in the areas of:-
Reduced working memory – There is substantial evidence to support the hypothesis that because highly complex tasks require high levels of processing and sufficient cognitive resources, the elderly perform slower compared to the young especially as the task becomes more complex requiring large amounts of processing. Slowed processing speed – has been briefly mentioned and have been based on age related performances between the old and the young. Difficulties in selecting the relevant from the irrelevant information (the Inhibition view) – based on somestudies, the elderly learners can not depict as efficiently between what is important and relevant from the irrelevant hence creating a burden and an over-load of the cognitive system more so than the younger learners. Deficits in the coordinative and integrative aspects of working memory (organizing and grouping parts of a presentation to make into a whole) – the aging brain shows a decline for memory for both new and familiar information and although the persons’ memory for landmarks is almost intact they show difficulties in integrative aspects in layout memory. This is further explained by coordinative (organizing something complex) and sequential conditions. Coordinative conditions are referred to the amount of processing required to regulate the interrelated processing steps and sequential conditions refer to the number of independent steps in a task without increasing the amount of information.
To give you an example, I experimented on my elderly student by presenting instructions on ‘how to send and open an attachment’ using ‘jing’ and using written steps with corresponding diagrams and found that he had no trouble following the written steps where as he had forgotten the first couple of steps in ‘jing’ by the time the 2.5 minute recording of ‘jing’ was complete.
A brief revision of the Theories
Cognitive architecture of learning – information is processed at 3 levels:- 1. The sensory level – visual and auditory 2. The working memory level - two modalities systems phonological loop and Visio spatial sketchpad 3. The Long-term memory level – where the new information is connected with prior knowledge accelerating the transfer of information or where in the case of no prior knowledge it is the task of instruction designers to present instructions most proficiently so information is absorbed most efficiently.
Dual Coding Theory - Acknowledges the limitations of working memory and states that verbal as well as nonverbal representations have equal importance but a combination of the two enhances retrieval from the long-term memory. Though the theory has been very important in education it’s emphasis remains on the level of working memory rather than the representational level.
Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) – Acknowledges the limited capacity of the two modalities in the working memory and advocates the use of dual stores to prevent each from becoming overloaded. It stresses the importance of presenting nonverbal information visually and verbal information through auditory channels and if possible presenting information using both modalities which can help expand the capacity of the working memory. For example, if the info is presented in a form of a diagram than it is best to narrate it rather than allow the attention to be split between written text and the diagram.
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia learning - Advocates the integration of audio and visual information as well as giving some concrete recommendations to assist with this integration such as –
- The use of coherence effect – the instruction to be interesting and relevant
- The signaling effect – highlighting important parts of an information which you want the learner to pay attention to.
- The redundancy effect – obtained when visual material is accompanied by auditory commentary.
- Spatial contiguity effect – if text is printed near the corresponding parts of a diagram.
- The temporal contiguity effect – when narration and diagrams are presented at the same time.
Compensatory Multimedia Strategies on the needs of the elderly learner
As mentioned earlier the cognitive decline in the elderly comprise of four major areas. The following covers these areas as well as giving recommendations to help each area of decline:-
Reduced working memory The visual and auditory parts of the working memory have limited capacity however, these limitations are worse in the elderly. Suggested strategy – bimodal presentation, that is visual and audio. One particular research on the modality effects amongst the elderly has shown that visual modality plays a beneficial role in verbal learning in the elderly.
Reduced cognitive speedInformation is processed at a slower speed mainly because by the time one piece of info is added to another the first piece has been degenerated. Suggested strategy – is to provide bimodal presentation where audio is presented in parallel to visual material with very little or no gap in between.
Reduced inhibition This problem stems from the inability to suppress irrelevant info from long-term memory and the failure to ignore distracting info from the visual field. Suggested strategies – Prevent irrelevant info from entering the working memory Direct and focus the attention to relevant material by highlighting the relevant in the visual field Bring closer in space interrelated pieces of information for example, text and figures or text and diagrams
Reduced Integration Is the difficulty the elderly have with organizing and grouping the different elements of an instruction. Suggested strategies – pay attention to temporal contiguity Layout – spatial contiguity Omit irrelevant info from entering the working memory Present material audio visually
Future Directions
Promising results in multimedia learning have been shown in the following areas: - - Allow learners to set the pace of instruction to suit their learning styles - In addition more interactive tools like zoom in and out of animations or change viewing perspective – caution must be taken in case these extra interactive tools impose an over-load and create a negative effect - Introduce parts first before giving the whole picture – has shown to be especially beneficial in the elderly learner - Another area of benefit would be to incorporate the two strategies of learner control and part-whole sequencing so that the learner can interactively control the pace and timing of when the information is shown and at what speed. Again the down side to this method would be the overloading of the working memory and creating a negative effect.
In summary
We discussed that cognitive processing decline in the elderly necessitates the need for instructional designs that meet their specific needs. These declines were in the areas of reduced working visual and auditory memory, reduced cognitive speed, reduced inhibition and reduced coordinative/integrative processing. The Dual coding, Cognitive load and Cognitive theory of multimedia were briefly discussed in formulating instructional guidelines. In addition learner control and part-whole approaches were discussed as two beneficial areas in learning that require further exploration to substantiate. And finally, the question is posed as to whether multimedia techniques are beneficial tools for enhancing learning in the elderly and that they should be used as a means to an end rather than a goal in themselves.
