Nathan & Robinson, 2001

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The authors in this article visit the question of whether media affects learning, and present arguments made by Richard Clark and Robert Kozma, who hold opposing perspectives on the subject. The similarities and differences of the two positions are identified, and the implications for future design, research methodology and learning are explored. To summarize, Clark's position is that media does not influence learning, and that it is only a vehicle to deliver instruction. On the other hand, Kozma argues that media can make a difference on learning, but as long as it corresponds well to the learning situation. The authors also compare their positions and note similarities and differences in their arguments. The authors note that both Clark and Kozma believe that supporting a learner's cognitive processes in order to generate new knowledge is necessary for learning, but they disagree on where the support comes from. Clark labels this support as "method" while Kozma labels it as "media."

This article does not agree with Clark. We see a lot of summarizing and only get a small amount of the author's original opinions.

"In addition to the skeptical View, Clark draws a clear separation between media and method. It is this separation that forms one of the pillars of his argument against studies of media and learning."... "Clark is convinced that researchers can never demonstrate that media can affect learning."

Kozma -- "With the design of computer-based integrated learning environments, and the flexible and sophisticated control afforded by software, a shift occurred from macro-level to micro-level decisions. With these environments it is (at least theoretically) possible to meet the needs of individual students, reconfiguring the system based on specific learner needs and task demands."

Definition: "An instructional method is any way to shape information that activates, supplants or compensates for the cognitive processes necessary for achievement or motivation." (Clark 1994a)

"To Clark, the presentation of information will vital to the learner falls under the realm of method, while to Kozma, this is primarily tied to the choice of media."

"In light of their common ground, it is puzzling that Clark and Kozma generate such different responses to the question of whether media can affect learning. One might be tempted to attribute Clark's and Kozma's differences to semantics -- blurring the boundaries of media and method. However, we believe that there is a more fundamental difference between the two researchers. Clark and Kozma differ in their views on learning."

Clark on Learning: "This very distinct separation between media and method indicates Clark's epistemological stance that locales knowledge solely within the individual."

Kozma on Learning: "In contrast to Clark, Kozma defines learning as an active, constructive process whereby the learner strategically manages available cognitive resources to create new knowledge by extracting information from the environment and integrating it with information already stored in memory."

"As one considers the pedagogical implications from a constructivist's view of learning as compared to that advanced by Clark (1983, 1994a, 1994b), a shift occurs from the delivery of information to the creation of enabling supports for learners."

"The studies cited by Clark as support for the claim that media do not affect learning used different research questions and methodologies than Kozma is using. Thus, Kozma is not ignoring this body of research cited by Clark."

"Clark's view of knowledge commits him to a separation between media and method. However, knowledge is viewed by Kozma as an interaction between the learner and his or her environment, where learning is the development of knowledge within the learner."

"If one looks only at instructional media, one would expect that highly coherent texts would be preferred over texts with low coherence for learning. Out. when one considers the interaction of media (texts) and methods (reading and supporting activities), we see that prior knowledge affects readers- comprehension processes (i.e., their self-directed methods) for a given text and subsequent learning."

"In particular, Clark and Kozma attribute learning to different factors, but run into tension as they discuss their arguments in practice. This tension exists because the dualism that exists on the theoretical plane disappears when these aspects of instruction and curriculum are considered in practice."

E.g.: the ThinkerTools environment

Article source: The Journal of Interactive Learning

Clark. R.E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research. 5J(4), 445-459.

Clark. R.E. (1994a). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2). 21-29.

Clark. R.E. (1994b). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development. 42(3). 7-10.