Mathewson, 1996
From Eduwiki
Visual-Spatial Thinking: An Aspect of Science Overlooked by Educators
James H. Mathewson
(Summarized by Scott Holloway)
This article reviews the fundamental role of imagery in science and technology and our current knowledge of visual-spatial cognition. “Visual-spatial thinking includes vision- using the eyes to identify, locate, and think about objects and ourselves in the world, imagery- the formation, inspection, transformation, and maintenance of images in the ‘minds eye’ in the absence of a visual stimulus.
Vision and Imagery
Perception is not independent of memory. Part of what we perceive comes from our senses and part from our mind. This is shown through optical illusions. Much of what we do see is an accurate representation of reality. An image is immediate and universal. It can be processed very quickly. The eye/brain system partitions images into three types: pattern (shape, depth and texture), color (hue, value, and saturation), and movement. Images are assembled in the brain into three-dimensional mental representations. There is a continuous interchange of perception and comprehension as the mind interacts with the world.
Human Abilities
Individuals with high visual-spatial abilities are called “high imagers” or “strong visualizers”. Testing for such abilities is inconsistent. Individuals can be trained to improve performance on spatial tasks. Some specualate that the rise in IQ globally is linked to the rise in common use of visual media.
Memory
Multiple perceptual pathways and multiple abilities imply multiple locations for memory including a image memory bank. Strong visualizers may have a better memory for pictures of an event than for words describing the event. Optimal learning requires the coordination of abilities and pathways.
Imagery in Science
Michael Faraday used visualization to describe the “lines of force” surrounding charged objects. Nikola Tesla was able to visualize working models in his head. Einstein is noted for his visual “thought experiments”. Science and technology rely on visualization to relate and exchange information in the form of diagrams, illustrations, maps, graphs, schematics, etc. which summarize vast amounts of information.
The Metaphoric Imagination
Analogies in science help link new ideas to previous experience through common images. This allows scientists to use mental models and analogies for further learning and communication.
The Thematic Imagination
All humans tend to categorize or classify information based on past and present concepts of the world. This tends to cause all new information to be biased, to be influenced by previous analogies.
Master Images and Visualization
A list of master images found in science is presented (the table is not a complete list, but a suggestion of possible master images). The list includes the following categories:
Boundaries
Branching
Chirality
Circuits
Containers
Coils
Color
Complementary Structures
Dimensions
Gradients
Groups
Motion
Ordering
Path
Point
Presentation
Space
Structure
Symmetry
Units
This list includes descriptive labels and examples for each category.
A second list of visualization techniques is also included. The list includes the following categories:
Data display
Data manipulation
Encoding
Gestalt
Location
Ordering
Perceptual extension
Reference frame
Signs
The list also includes descriptive labels and examples for each technique.
A Critique of Current Practice
Children enter school already very visual. Children rely heavily on sight as a mode of learning. This visual-spatial should be encourage rather than replaced by skills in literacy and numeracy. Gardner describes a golden window of opportunity for spatial learning from 5 -7. Teaching strategies should foster balance between the use of language and image by the learner.
Language and Image Instruction
A rich visual environment will help children acquire greater visual-spatial skills. But visual communication is not part of most programs. Teachers attend “writing across the curriculum” but not “imaging across the curriculum” sessions. The skillful use of images is encouraged in courses like geography, art, geometry, mechanical drawing and science laboratories, but these courses tend to be marginalized in curricular restructuring.
Textbook Codependence
Textbooks need to be evaluated for visual quality. Although many textbooks include multimedia visuals, these are judged inexpertly. Some illustrations have unexplained scale expansions or contractions. Students often have difficulty relating diagrams to dynamic interactions and functional mechanisms as shown through a static illustration.
Search for Coherence
Vision and imagery involve prior knowledge and build upon a cohesive and coherent environment. Experts encode large amounts of information economically in terms of images. Terms like “getting the picture” or “I see what you mean” are indicative of the power and effectiveness of images. Yet in education we teach in units, lessons and tasks that are not coherent, but are fragmented. New topics are introduced too quickly and with only vocabulary level depth.
The Thematic Approach to Coherence
States are include sections in state standards for organizing units into themes. Most thematic units are very broad. Also, social issues like pollution are used to provide focus and motivation for learning. Themes are supposed to unify the curriculum, facilitate team teaching and foster cooperative learning. Curricular themes are built on interconnections in the subject matter, but do not address coherent thinking. Thematic thinking can form lasting interconnections between topics, promote its own growth, and lead to reinforcement outside the curriculum. Mastery of a domain involves an individual acquiring a coherent and unified body of knowledge about the domain and can use this knowledge productively.
Imaging Across the Curriculum: Classroom Strategies
Master Images and Visualization
The thematic emphasis of current curricular standards can be made more useful by turning to underlying visual-spatial and analogical cognitive skills. Visual-spatial activities should be a preferred way to address science processes
Visual-Spatial Exercises
Age appropriate exercises with shadows, mirrors, mazes, hidden figures, mental rotations, etc can prepare students to use observation and imagery in all subjects. Manipulative blocks can be used with elementary children. Skill in using visual-spatial thinking can be improved using exercises. The understanding of a cross-section, topographic map, or circuit diagram is not automatic, even when topics have been explained or read. Children should be encouraged to depict their perceptions of objects and events in drawings and diagrams. The use of image journals can help record confusions, insights, visual conventions and other common forms used in illustration. These images can then be categorized into themes to help provide coherence.
Active Learning
Direct experience provides a rich ‘situation’ in which the learner may be able to take advantage of cognitive integration, employing multiple inputs from different perceptual pathways. Passive listening and reading is a less effective learning environment.
Visual Analogy
Instructional analogies are often used in science. The use of fictitious scales can help visualize concepts or dimensions. When using analogies it is important to clearly draw the parallel, but to be explicit where the analogy fails.
Assessment
Visual-spatial thinking is not adequately assessed through recall tests, labeling and traditional word problems. The need for authentic assessment dictates that the use of visual-spatial methods in assessment should accompany similar methods in instruction. Science test should use illustrations liberally. Relating pattern within images to processes can demonstrate deeper understanding of a given concept.
Computers
Computers have caused an imagery revolution in the classroom. The use of computers, motion pictures, videos, etc provides effective alternative instruction, but cannot substitute for pedagogical skill and content knowledge in the teacher. New computers allow vast amounts of data to be visualized and color coded allowing for relationships to be seen by trained observers that would otherwise be obscure.
The Affective Dimension
Practice in using visual-spatial activities can provide affective support, especially for science.
Research and Reform
Questions for research and reform are suggested. A few are listed here.
- Do students with high visual-spatial ability have a motivational edge in science learning?
- What would be the differences between prior knowledge evoked from verbal challenges versus visual challenges?
- How does teaching a topic in verbal form compare with a strongly visual-spatial format?
- How can we integrate text and depictions in books, materials, activities, and technological resources?
The Visual Teacher
Science education is rapidly changing bringing media and the world-wide web into the hands of our students, for better or worse. Teacher development is key to incorporating visual-spatial teaching and learning into science education. To experienced teachers, master images and visualization methods in science are familiar, evocative and useful.
